What this is
What is a push and pull assessment?
What is a push and pull assessment?
A structured evaluation of a pushing, pulling or carrying task, usually a cart, tote, roll cage or pallet jack, that measures the force required and compares it against psychophysical data to estimate the proportion of the workforce able to do it safely.
How is push and pull force actually measured?
With a dynamometer at the point of hand contact, recording the peak force to start the load moving and the lower force to keep it moving. Estimating by eye is common and unreliable; assessors consistently underestimate breakaway force, where most injuries occur.
Why record initial and sustained force separately?
They are different events with different injury mechanisms. Initial force overcomes static friction and is typically higher; sustained force is more affected by distance and duration. An averaged number obscures whichever is actually the problem.
Scope
When is a push and pull assessment required?
A push and pull assessment applies where the task is a genuine push, pull or carry with a force that can be measured. Used for a task that is actually a lift, a high-frequency motion or a sustained posture, it answers the wrong question.
Use this template when
- A cart, tote, roll cage or pallet jack is pushed, pulled or carried as the primary task
- A new movement task, route or piece of movement equipment is introduced
- An existing push or pull task has changed materially in load, distance, frequency, route or equipment
- A discomfort report or MSD injury report points to a pushing or pulling task
- A general risk assessment has flagged manual handling and the force needs quantifying rather than scoring generically
Do not use it for
- Task Ergonomic Assessment, a configurable whole-body posture method (RULA, REBA or WISHA) where posture rather than force is the concern
- Lifting Task Assessment, which runs the NIOSH lifting equation for a discrete lift rather than a sustained push or pull
- Repetitive Task Assessment, needed where the task cycles at high frequency and upper limb loading, not force, drives the risk
- Manual Handling Assessment, the broader assessment for handling not reducing cleanly to a single push or pull, an awkward carry or team lift
- Anything outside KnowErgo, which belongs in the workspace that owns that process
Compliance mapping
Which Snook and Ciriello requirements does this satisfy?
Pushing and pulling sit inside general manual handling duties almost everywhere, with ISO 11228-2 treating force, distance, frequency and posture as one evaluation.
| Clause | Requirement | Where it lands |
|---|---|---|
| ISO 11228-2 cl.4 | Task and load description as the basis for evaluation: object, equipment, distance and frequency | Header |
| ISO 11228-2 cl.5 | Initial and sustained push/pull forces evaluated against recommended limits | Forces |
| ISO 11228-2 cl.4 | Equipment and handle factors considered as variables affecting the force required | Equipment condition |
| ISO 11228-2 cl.4 | Environmental and route factors considered: floor condition, slopes, obstacles, visibility | Route |
| ISO 11228-2 Annex | Psychophysical data applied to estimate the percentage of the population capable | Scored method |
| Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992, reg.4 | Avoid the operation where practicable, assess what cannot be avoided, reduce the risk | Outcome |
| OSHA 5(a)(1) | General Duty Clause obligation to address a recognised hazard exceeding safe capability | Outcome |
What it does not cover
- Lifting Task Assessment, which applies the NIOSH lifting equation to loads lifted rather than pushed or pulled, and does not use the Snook and Ciriello force tables.
- Repetitive Task Assessment, needed where the task cycles at high frequency and upper limb loading, not whole-body push/pull force, drives the risk.
- Manual Handling Assessment, the general assessment for handling that does not reduce cleanly to a single measurable push or pull, such as awkward carrying or a team lift.
- Task Ergonomic Assessment, which applies a configurable whole-body posture method (RULA, REBA or WISHA) where posture, not force, is the concern.
- The equipment maintenance record itself, which belongs in the maintenance schedule and work order system, not the assessment that identifies the equipment as a problem.
Global
Push and Pull Assessment requirements by country
The duty to control pushing and pulling sits inside general manual handling law nearly everywhere. What differs is whether a jurisdiction publishes indicative force limits or leaves the method to the employer.
OSH Act General Duty Clause; NIOSH-published psychophysical data
No specific push/pull standard. Snook and Ciriello tables originate from NIOSH-funded research and read as recognised practice rather than a binding limit.
Enforcement for an unassessed hazard runs through the General Duty Clause; citing Snook and Ciriello is how OSHA and claimants commonly establish what was foreseeable.
Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992, reg.4 and Schedule 1
Pushing and pulling fall within manual handling operations; duty is to avoid, assess, then reduce risk so far as reasonably practicable.
HSE guidance publishes indicative force filter values close to Snook and Ciriello data; a conclusion well above those without justification is hard to defend.
ISO 11228-2
A defined evaluation procedure covering task description, force limits, and population-based acceptability criteria.
Certification auditors expect the method actually applied and documented, which is why a measured rather than estimated reading matters.
How to complete it
How to complete a push and pull assessment, step by step
The template prompts for force, distance and equipment, but the judgement calls decide what the numbers actually mean.
A dynamometer reading at hand contact is the only reliable figure. Estimation understates initial (breakaway) force, because the moment of highest exertion is brief and not what an observer's eye naturally weighs, and it is exactly what the population-capable percentage depends on.
The same load, cart and route can need three times the force depending on whether castors run free, are stiff, or seized. Recording nameplate condition rather than as-found condition describes a different task to the one being performed.
They call for different controls. A high initial force with a manageable sustained force points to starting friction, typically wheels or floor; a high sustained force over distance points to route or duration. Averaging loses the distinction that decides the control.
A task rated 84 percent capable excludes roughly one worker in six. The assessment must say what happens to that minority, by rotation, equipment change or exclusion, not file the percentage as a pass mark.
What auditors find
Most common push and pull assessment findings
Push and pull assessments usually have the arithmetic present and equipment context missing, the reverse of what the record needs.
| Finding | Clause | What fixes it |
|---|---|---|
| Force recorded as estimated rather than measured with a gauge. | ISO 11228-2 cl.5 | Use a dynamometer at the point of hand contact for both initial and sustained readings. |
| Equipment condition not assessed; seized or stiff castors not identified as the cause of a high reading. | ISO 11228-2 cl.4 | Inspect wheels, brakes and handle height at assessment time, not from specification. |
| Assessment records one averaged force figure rather than distinguishing initial from sustained. | ISO 11228-2 cl.5 | Record both figures separately; breakaway force is where most injuries cluster. |
| Route factors, slope, thresholds, congestion and visibility, not recorded. | ISO 11228-2 cl.4 | Document floor condition, ramps and visibility over the load in the same record. |
| Hierarchy of controls not applied; assessment concludes in training alone. | Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992, reg.4 | Record why a mechanical aid was rejected before defaulting to training. |
| Percentage of population capable not reconciled against the actual workforce doing the task. | ISO 11228-2 Annex | Compare the figure against who is actually rostered on the task, not an assumed population. |
Case in point
Case in point: the cart that passed on paper
A distribution centre assessed a tote cart movement between packing and despatch. The assessor judged the force as moderate, marked it estimated rather than measured, and recorded a population-capable figure comfortably above threshold. Castors were noted as free running because the cart rolled smoothly when tried empty at the start of the shift.
Four months later a picker reported shoulder strain moving the same cart, now loaded, with two of its four castors partially seized from grit. A dynamometer check found the initial force nearly double the estimated figure, and the review had been scheduled annually rather than tied to an equipment check, so the degraded castors were never re-examined between the assessment and the injury.
The template
The template, field by field
The form exactly as it installs. Every field, option, score and conditional rule is editable, and the links to other templates come with it.
6 sections
- Reference
- ERG-008
- Archetype
- Assessment
- Record ID
- ERG-2026-000
- Scoring
- Percent population capable
- Direction
- High is good
- Singleton
- No
- Basis
- Snook and Ciriello, ISO 11228-2
- Links
- Links Job, Asset
- Tags
- Ergonomics, Manual handling
- Sections
- 6
- Fields
- 57
- Follow up fields
- 3
- Repeating sections
- 0
- Links out
- 7
Header
13 fieldsAssessment ID*
Auto sequence. Format ERG-2026-00000.
The record's own ID. Other templates point at this value.
Status*
Drives who this goes to next.
- Planned2 pts
- In progress2 pts
- Complete3 pts
- Deferred0 pts
- Open0 pts
- Closed3 pts
- Overdue0 pts
Date and Time*
Completed By*
Site*
Site ID*
Format SITE-000.
Links to FDN-001 Site ID
Area
The area within the site.
Exact Location
Drop a pin for anything hard to find.
Task*
Job ID*
Format JOB-000.
Links to FDN-004 Job Task ID
Object Being Moved*
Object Weight Kilograms*
Equipment Used*
Trolley, cage, roll cage, pallet truck, bin or none.
Forces
9 fieldsInitial Force Newtons*
Getting it moving is the highest force and where most injuries happen.
Sustained Force Newtons*
Force Measured Or Estimated*
- Measured with gauge3 pts
- Estimated0 pts
Push Or Pull*
Pushing is generally safer than pulling because the load is in view and the posture is better.
- Push3 pts
- Pull1 pt
- Both1 pt
Distance Moved Metres*
Frequency Per Shift*
Hand Height*
- Between hip and shoulder3 pts
- Below hip1 pt
- Above shoulder0 pts
One Handed Or Two*
- Two handed3 pts
- One handed0 pts
Sustained Or Intermittent*
- Intermittent3 pts
- Sustained0 pts
Equipment condition
6 fieldsWheels Or Castors Free Running*
Seized castors can triple the force required. This is the cheapest fix in ergonomics.
- Yes3 pts
- Stiff1 pt
- Seized0 pts
Wheel Size Suitable For Floor*
- Yes3 pts
- Marginal1 pt
- No0 pts
Brakes Working*
- Yes3 pts
- Partly1 pt
- No0 pts
Handles At Correct Height*
- Yes3 pts
- Marginal1 pt
- No0 pts
Equipment On Maintenance Schedule*
- Yes3 pts
- No0 pts
Work Order ID
Links to MNT-002 Work Order ID
Route
6 fieldsFloor Surface Condition*
- Good3 pts
- Fair1 pt
- Poor0 pts
Slopes Or Ramps*
- None3 pts
- Gentle1 pt
- Steep0 pts
Thresholds Or Door Sills*
- None3 pts
- Some1 pt
- Many0 pts
Turning Or Manoeuvring Required*
- Minimal3 pts
- Some1 pt
- Frequent0 pts
Route Congested*
- No3 pts
- Sometimes1 pt
- Always0 pts
Visibility Over Load*
- Clear3 pts
- Restricted1 pt
- Blocked0 pts
Scored method
3 fieldsVideo Assessment ID
Links to ERG-036 Assessment ID
Population Capable Percent
Acceptable For Most Workers*
- Yes3 pts
- Marginal1 pt
- No0 pts
Outcome
20 fieldsRisk Level*
- Low3 pts
- Medium1 pt
- High0 pts
- Very high0 pts
Action Priority*
- Monitor3 pts
- Plan improvement2 pts
- Act soon1 pt
- Act now0 pts
Action Timescale*
- No action needed3 pts
- Within 6 months2 pts
- Within 1 month1 pt
- Immediate0 pts
Recommended Controls*
Highest Control Level Proposed*
Redesigning the workstation beats a lifting aid, which beats training, which beats rotation.
- Eliminate the task4 pts
- Redesign workstation4 pts
- Mechanical aid3 pts
- Tool change3 pts
- Training1 pt
- Rotation1 pt
Quick Win Available*
- Yes3 pts
- No1 pt
Worker Involved In Solution*
- Yes3 pts
- Consulted2 pts
- No0 pts
Risk Assessment
Risk ID
Format RSK-2026-00000.
Links to FDN-012 Risk ID
Action Required*
Raise the action record, then enter its reference here.
- No2 pts
- Yes0 pts
Priority
- High0 pts
- Medium1 pt
- Low3 pts
CAPA ID
Format CAPA-2026-00000.
Links to FDN-014 CAPA ID
Action Owner
Reassessment Required*
- No3 pts
- Yes1 pt
Reassessment ID
Links to ERG-014 Assessment ID
Next Review Due*
Assessor*
Signature*
Supervisor*
Second Signature*
ERG-008 · record IDs look like ERG-2026-000 · Links Job, Asset
Open in KnowellaRun it with agents
From a document you fill in to a programme that runs itself
The assessment records a moment. What actually degrades is the equipment underneath it, and nothing in the form notices when that happens.
Holds the push and pull assessment library against tasks and equipment, and flags where a linked asset's condition has changed since the last assessment.
Connects equipment condition fields to the maintenance schedule, so a seized castor or worn brake raises a work order rather than waiting for reassessment.
Links a recommended control back to a training requirement only where training is genuinely the chosen control, not the default one.
Watches for force estimated rather than measured, and linked equipment with a maintenance event since assessment, and raises reassessment early.
This template lives in KnowErgo — ergonomics. Task assessment, video posture analysis, rotation and workstation redesign.
Meet KnowErgo→Glossary
Push and Pull Assessment definitions and key terms
- Initial (breakaway) force
- The peak force needed to overcome static friction and start a load moving; typically the highest force in the task and most associated with injury.
- Sustained force
- The lower force needed to keep a load moving once started, more affected by distance and duration than by starting friction.
- Snook and Ciriello tables
- Psychophysical data giving the percentage of a working population able to perform a given push, pull, lift or carry at a stated force, frequency and distance.
- Psychophysical method
- An assessment approach based on what workers judge an acceptable maximum effort, aggregated across a population, rather than a purely biomechanical limit.
- Population capable
- The proportion of the working population estimated able to perform the task at the measured force without exceeding an accepted risk of strain.
FAQ
Frequently asked questions about push and pull assessment
Should push and pull force be measured or estimated?+
Measured. A dynamometer at hand contact gives the initial and sustained force directly. Estimation is common where equipment is unavailable, but flag it as provisional; assessors reliably underestimate breakaway force, the figure most connected to injury.
Why does equipment condition matter as much as the load?+
Seized or stiff castors can double or triple the force needed to move an unchanged load. A cart assessed new and well maintained becomes a materially different task within months, so the assessment needs the equipment as found, not as specified.
Is pushing safer than pulling?+
Generally, for an equivalent force. Pushing keeps the load in view and allows a better posture; pulling twists the spine and obscures the path ahead. Where a task can be done either way, record which is actually used and why.
What does the percentage-capable figure actually mean?+
The estimated proportion of a working population able to perform the measured push or pull without exceeding an accepted limit. It is not a pass mark; 84 percent means one worker in six cannot safely do the task, which must be addressed, not filed.
How often should a push and pull assessment be repeated?+
Whenever load, distance, frequency, route or equipment changes materially, or condition degrades, not solely on a calendar date. A seized castor invalidates the original reading long before an annual review arrives.
What's the difference between this and a lifting assessment?+
A push or pull moves a load horizontally through force at the hands; a lift raises or lowers a load against gravity, evaluated with the NIOSH lifting equation instead. A task involving both, lifting a tote onto a cart then pushing it, needs both assessments.
Keep going
Related templates and programmes
Industries this is written for
Programmes this belongs to
Used together in Ergonomics and MSD Prevention
Discomfort Report
Lets a worker report aches, pain or discomfort early, before it becomes an injury
Body Part Symptom Survey
Maps where in the body workers are experiencing discomfort, across a team or area
MSD Injury Report
Records a diagnosed musculoskeletal injury, including affected body part and suspected task
Early Intervention Record
Records the actions taken when discomfort is reported, before it becomes an injury
MSD Trend Review
Reviews discomfort reports and MSD injuries across areas and tasks
Task Ergonomic Assessment
Assesses a work task using video, applying the methods you configure such as RULA, REBA or WISHA
More in Task Assessments
Task Ergonomic Assessment
Assesses a work task using video, applying the methods you configure such as RULA, REBA or WISHA
Lifting Task Assessment
Assesses a lifting task from video, running the NIOSH lifting equation alongside a whole body posture method
Repetitive Task Assessment
Assesses highly repetitive work from video, focusing on upper limb loading and cycle time
Sustained Posture Assessment
Assesses tasks held in one position for long periods, such as inspection, monitoring or fine assembly
Manual Handling Assessment
A general manual handling assessment covering load, posture, frequency and environment
Maintenance Task Assessment
Assesses the awkward postures maintenance work often demands, including overhead, kneeling and confined access
Written and reviewed by
Siddarth Singh
Founder & Chief Executive Officer, Knowella
Certified Safety Professional and industrial and systems engineer with more than a decade inside food supply chain, freight and manufacturing operations. This page was written against the current text of the standards it cites, not against secondary summaries of them.
- Certified Safety Professional (CSP), Board of Certified Safety Professionals
- MBA, University of Chicago Booth School of Business
- MS and BS, The Ohio State University, Industrial and Systems Engineering
- Six Sigma Black Belt
Sources and last review. Reviewed 16 August 2026 against:
- ISO 11228-2:2007, Ergonomics — Manual handling — Part 2: Pushing and pulling
- Snook, S.H. and Ciriello, V.M. (1991), The design of manual handling tasks: revised tables of maximum acceptable weights and forces, Ergonomics
- Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 (as amended), regulation 4 and Schedule 1 (GB)
- OSH Act Section 5(a)(1), General Duty Clause (US)
This page is general guidance, not legal advice. Confirm requirements with your jurisdiction’s regulator.